Book - Asking the Right Questions-A Guide to Critical Thinking

Chapter 1: What is critical thinking?

Critical thinking as we will use the term, refers to the following:

1. awareness of a set of interrelated critical questions;
2. ability to ask and answer critical questions at appropriate times; and the
3. desire to actively use the critical questions.

Attention: Critical thinking consists of an awareness of a set of interre-lated critical questions, plus the ability and willingness to ask and answer them at appropriate times.

Weak-Sense and Strong-Sense Critical Thinking Attention: Weak sense critical thinking is the use of critical thinking todefend your current beliefs. Strong sense critical thinking is the use of the same skills to evaluate all claims and beliefs especially your own.

To give you an initial sense of the skills that sking the Right Questions will help you acquire, we will list the critical questions for you here. By the end of thebook, you should know when and how to ask these questions productively:

1. What are the issues and the conclusions?
2. What are the reasons?
3. Which words or phrases are ambiguous?
4. What are the value and descriptive assumptions?
5. Are there any fallacies in the reasoning?
6. How good is the evidence?
7. Are there rival causes?
8. Are the statistics deceptive?
9. What significant information is omitted?
10. What reasonable conclusions are possible?

Chapter 2: What are the Issue and the Conclusion?

What are the Issue and the Conclusion? Attention: An issue is a question or controversy responsible for theconversation or discussion It is the stimulus for what is being said.

Kinds of Issues Attention: Descriptive issues are those that raise questions about the accuracy of descriptions of the past present or future.

Examples:

1. Do families who own pets have fewer arguments with one another?
2. What causes high blood pressure?
3. Who made the decision to increase our sales taxes?
4. How much will college cost in the year 2010

Attention: Prescriptive issues are those that raise questions about what we should do or what is right or wrong good or bad.

Examples:

1. Should capital punishment be abolished?
2. What ought to be done about social security?
3. Must we outlaw SUVs or face increasing rates of asthma?

Attention: A conclusion is the message that the speaker or writer wishes you to accept.

USING THIS CRITICAL QUESTION Once you have found the conclusion, use it as the focus of your evaluation. It is the destination that the writer or speaker wants you to choose. Your ongoingconcern is: Should I accept that conclusion on the basis of what is supportingthe claim?

What Are the Issue and the Conclusion? Before you can evaluate an author’s argument, you must clearly identify the issue and conclusion. How can you evaluate an argument if you don t know exactly what the author is trying to persuade you to believe? Finding an author’s main point is the first step in deciding whether you will accept or reject it.

Chapter 3: What Are the Reasons?

Attention: reasons are explanations or rationales for why we should believe a particular conclusion.

Attention: An argument consists of a conclusion and the reasons that allegedly support it.

USING THIS CRITICAL QUESTION Once you have found the reasons, you need to come back to them again and again as you read or listen further. Their quality is crucial to a strong argument. The conclusion depends on their merit. Weak reasons create weak reasoning.

CRITICAL QUESTION SUMMARY: WHY THIS QUESTION IS IMPORTANT

What re the Reasons Once you have identified the issue and conclusion, you need to understand why an author has come to a certain conclusion. Reasons are the why. If the author provides good reasons, you might be persuaded to accept her conclusion. However, right now, we are simply concerned with identifying the reasons. Identifying the reasons is the next step in deciding whether you should accept or reject the author’s conclusion.

Chapter 4: What Words or Phrases Are Ambiguous?

Attention: Ambiguity refers to the existence of multiple possible meaningsfor a word or phrase.

USING THIS CRITICAL QUESTION The critical question focusing on ambiguity provides you with a fair-minded basis for disagreeing with the reasoning. If you and the person trying to persuade you are using different meanings for key terms in the reasoning, youwould have to work out those disagreements first before you could accept thereasoning being offered to you.

Examine the context carefully to determine the meaning of key terms andphrases. If the meaning remains uncertain, you have located an important ambiguity. If the meaning is clear and you disagree with it, then you should bewary of any reasoning that involves that term or phrase.

CRITICAL QUESTION SUMMARY : WHY THIS QUESTION IS IMPORTANT

What Words or Phrases Are Ambiguous? Once you have identified an author’s argument, you need to identify key words or phrases within that reasoning that might have alternative meanings. More impor-tantly, you need to determine whether the author explicitly uses one of thosedefinitions. If she does not, and if one of those meanings alters your acceptance ofthe conclusion, you have identified an important ambiguity. Identifying ambiguous words and phrases is the next important step in determining whether you will accept or reject the conclusion.

Chapter 5: What Are the Value and Descriptive Assumptions?

Attention: An assumption is an unstated belief that supports the explicit reasoning.

Attention: Values are the unstated ideas that people see as worthwhile. They provide standards of conduct by which we measure the quality ofhuman behavior.

Attention: A value assumption is an implicit preference for one value overanother in a particular context. We use value preferences and value priorities as synonyms.

CRITICAL QUESTION SUMMARY: WHY THIS QUESTION IS IMPORTANT

What Are the Value Conflicts and Assumptions? While an author usually offers explicit reasons why she comes to a certain conclusion she also makes certain assumptions that lead her to a certain conclusion. Byidentifying value conflicts, you determine whether the author’s value preferences match your value preferences. Consequently, you have a tool for determiningwhether you will accept or reject an author’s conclusion.

Chapter 6: Are There Any Fallacies in the Reasoning?

Attention: A descriptive assumption is an unstated belief about how the world was, is or will become.

CRITICAL QUESTION SUMMARY : WHY THIS QUESTION S IMPORTANT

What Are the Descriptive Assumptions When you identify descriptive assumptions, you are identifying the link between a reason and the author’s conclusion. If this link is flawed, the reason does not nec-essarily lead to the conclusion. Consequently, identifying the descriptive assump- tions allows you to determine whether an author’s reasons lead to a conclusion. You will want to accept a conclusion only when there are good reasons that leadto the conclusion. Thus when you determine that the link between the reasonsand conclusion is flawed, you will want to be reluctant to accept the author’s conclusion.

Attention: A fallacy is a reasoning trick that an author might use whiletrying to persuade you to accept a conclusion.

Ad hominem: An attack, or an insult, on the person, rather than directly addressing the person’s reasons.

Slippery Slope: Making the assumption that a proposed step will set off an uncontrollable chain of undesirable events, when procedures exist to prevent such a chain of events.

Searching for Perfect Solution: Falsely assuming that because part of a problemwould remain after a solution is tried, the solution should not be adopted.

Equivocation: A key word is used with two or more meanings in an argumentsuch that the argument fails to make sense once the shifts in meaning are recognized.

Appeal to Popularity Ad populum): An attempt to justify a claim by appealing tosentiments that large groups of people have in common; falsely assumes that anythingfavored by a large group is desirable.

Appeal to questionable authority: Supporting a conclusion by citing an authority who lacks special expertise on the issue at hand.

Appeals to Emotions: The use of emotionally charged language to distract readers and listeners from relevant reasons and evidence.

Straw Person: Distorting our opponent’s point of view so that it is easy to attack; thus we attack a point of view that does not truly exist.

Either-Or Or False Dilemma): Assuming only two alternatives when there are more than two.

Wishful Thinking: Making the faulty assumption that because we wish X were true or false, then X is indeed true or false.

Explaining by Naming: Falsely assuming that because you have provided a name for some event or behavior that you have also adequately explained the event.

Glittering Generality: The use of vague emotionally appealing virtue words that dispose us to approve something without closely examining the reasons.

Red Herring: An irrelevant topic is presented to divert attention from the origi nal issue and help to “win” an argument by shifting attention away from the argumentand to another issue. The fallacy sequence in this instance is as follows: (a) Topic A isbeing discussed; (b) Topic B is introduced as though it is relevant to topic A, but it isnot; and (c) Topic A is abandoned.

Begging the Question: An argument in which the conclusion is assumed in the reasoning.

CRITICAL QUESTION SUMMARY: WHY THIS QUESTION S IMPORTANT Are there ny Fallacies in the Reasoning? Once you have identified the reasons, you want to determine whether the author used any reasoning tricks, or fallacies. If you identify a fallacy in reasoning, that reason does not provide good support for the conclusion. Consequently, you would not want to accept an author’s conclusion on the basis of that reason. If the author provides no good reasons, you would not want to accept her conclusion. Thus, looking for fallacies in reasoning is another important step in determining whether you will accept or reject the author’s conclusion.

Chapter 7: How Good Is the Evidence: Intuition, Personal Experience, Case Examples, Testimonials, and Appeals to Authority?

Attention: Evidence is explicit information shared by the communicator that is used to back up or to justify the dependability of a factual claim. In prescriptive arguments, evidence will be needed to support reasons that are factual claims; in descriptive arguments, evidence will be needed to directly support a descriptive conclusion.

Hasty Generalization Fallacy: A person draws a conclusion about a large groupbased on experiences with only a few members of the group

Chapter 8: How Good Is the Evidence: Personal Observation, Research Studies, and Analogies?

Faulty Analogy: Occurs when an analogy is proposed in which there are important relevant dissimilarities.

CRITICAL QUESTION SUMMARY: WHY THIS QUESTION IS IMPORTANT

How Good Is the Evidence? When an author offers a reason in support of a conclusion, you want to know w y you should believe that reason. By identifying the evidence offered in support of a reason, you are taking another step in evaluating the worth of the reason. If the evidence that supports the reason is good, the reason better supports the conclu-sion. Thus, you might be more willing to accept the author’s conclusion if theauthor offers good evidence in support of a reason, which in turn provides good support for the conclusion.

Chapter 9: Are There Rival Causes?

Attention: A rival c use is a plausible alternative explanation that canexplain why certain outcome occurred.

Causal Oversimplification: Explaining an event by relying on causal factors that are insufficient to account for the event or by overemphasizing the role of one or more of these factors.

Confusion of Cause and Effect: Confusing the cause with the effect of an eventor failing to recognize that the two events may be influencing each other.

Neglect of a Common Cause: Failure to recognize that two events may be relatedbecause of the effects of a common third factor.

Post hoc Fallacy: Assuming that a particular event, B, is caused by another event,A, simply because B follows A in time.

CRITICAL QUESTION SUMMARY: WHY THIS QUESTION IS IMPORTANT Are There Rival Causes? While an author might offer an explanation for why certain events occurred, other explanations might be plausible. When you try to identify rival causes, youare finding alternative explanations for an event. If y u can identify alternative explanations, y u must decide whether y u should believe the author’s explana-tion or one of the other explanations. If the author does not provide reasons forwhy y u should accept her explanation over other explanations, you should not be willing to accept her explanation and ultimately her conclusion. Thus, looking for rival causes is another step in deciding whether to accept or reject an argument.

Chapter 10: Are the Statistics Deceptive?

CRITICAL QUESTION SUMMARY: WHY THIS QUESTION IS IMPORTANT Are the Statistics Deceptive? Authors often provide statistics to support their reasoning. The statistics appearto be hard evidence. However, there are many ways that statistics can be misused. Because problematic statistics are used frequently, it is important to identify anyproblems with th statistics so that you can more carefully determine whetheryou will accept or reject the author’s conclusion.

Chapter 11: What Significant Information is Omitted?

CRITICAL QUESTION SUMMARY: WHY THIS QUESTION IS IMPORTANT What Significant Information Is Omitted? When an author is trying to persuade you of something she often leaves outimportant information. This information is often useful in assessing the worth of the conclusion. By explicitly looking for omitted information you candetermine whether the author has provided you with enough information to support the reasoning. If she has left out too much information you cannot accept the reasons as support for the conclusion. Consequently you should choose to reject her conclusion.

Chapter 12: What Reasonable Conclusions Are Possible?

CRITICAL QUESTION SUMMARY : WHY THIS QUESTION IS IMPORTANT What Reasonable Conclusions Are Possible? When you are deciding whether to accept or reject an author’s conclusion, you want to make sure that the author has come to the most reasonable conclusion.An author often oversteps his reasoning when he comes to a conclusion. By identifying alternative reasonable conclusions, you can determine which alter-native conclusions, if any, you would be willing to accept in place of the author’s conclusion. This step is the final tool in deciding whether to accept or reject the author’s conclusion.

Final Word

Critical thinking is a tool. It does something for you. In serving this function for you, critical thinking can perform well or not so well. We want to end thebook by urging you to get optimal use of the attitudes and skills of criticalthinking that you have worked so hard to develop.

The Tone of Your Critical Thinking

As a critical thinker, you have the capability to come across like an annoying warrior, constantly watching for ways to slay those who stray from careful reasoning. But learning is, in important ways, a social activity. We need one another fordevelopment; we need one another to share conversation and debate. None of us is so gifted that we can stand alone in the face of the complexities weencounter. Critical thinking can make you more self-reliant if you use it toimprove your own decision-making.

Hence, critical thinkers need to think about what they are giving offwhen they use their critical thinking. When you use your critical thinking, you are sending some kind of message to others about what critical thinking means to you. This message will be especially effective when it combines the curiosity and excitement of the child with the skeptical nature of our best sci- entists, all moderated by the humility of a monk. Your critical thinking then ison display as a pathway to better conclusions. You seek those conclusions notto elevate yourself above those who have other conclusions, but to move us all forward toward some better understanding of who we are. And all the while,you will be improving yourself as a thinker.

Criticism is always a tricky business. In many families and schools, dis- agreement is identified with meanness. In these settings, the preferred socialrole is smiling agreement with whatever reasoning is announced. As a criticalthinker, you must consider the stark sound of your critical questions in such a context and work self-consciously to make certain that your critical thinking is seen in its best light.

Your best strategy is to present yourself as someone, who like the personwho made the argument in the first place is stumbling around, but alwayswatchful for better conclusions. Openness is a central value of a criticalthinker, and you show that openness by your eagerness to listen and discover.Whoever finds the better conclusion first is not relevant; what is important isthe search for better conclusions. If you give signals to those trying to per suade you that you are their partner in a discovery process intended to enrichyou both, they may see your critical questions as a tool that is indispensable to both of you.

Strategies for Effective Critical Thinking

How can you give others the sense that your critical thinking is a friendlytool, one that can improve the lives of the listener and the speaker, thereader, and the writer? Like other critical thinkers, we are always struggling with this question.

Let us conclude this book with a few of the techniques we try to use.

1. Be certain to demonstrate that you really want to grasp what is being said. Ask questions that indicate your willingness to grasp and accept new conclusions.

2. Restate what you heard or read and ask whether your understanding ofthe argument is consistent with what was written or spoken.

3. Voice your critical questions as if you are curious. Nothing is more deadlyto the effective use of critical thinking than an attitude of “Aha, I caughtyou making an error.”

4. Request additional reasons that might enable the person to make a stronger argument than the one originally provided.

5. Work hard to keep the conversation going. If critical thinking isdeployed like a bomb, thinking on that topic is halted

6. Ask the other person for permission to allow you to explore any weak nesses in the reasoning. The idea with this strategy is to encourage theother person to examine the argument with you.

7. Convey the impression that you and the other person are collaborators, working toward the same objective - improved conclusions.

   As a parting shot, we want to encourage you to engage with issues. Criticalthinking is not a sterile hobby. It provides a basis for a partnership for action among the reasonable. Beliefs are wonderful, but their payoff is in our subse quent behavior. After you have found the best answer to a question, act on that answer. Make your critical thinking the basis for the creation of an identity ofwhich you can be proud. Put it to work for yourself and for the community inwhich you find yourself.

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Second-Order Thinking